Foundations of International Law
The basic structure of international law, including its sources, principles, institutions and legal operation.
Study Chapters
What is International Law?
International law is the body of legal rules and principles governing relations between States, international organisations and, in certain areas, individuals. It regulates matters including peace and security, treaties, human rights, armed conflict,...
Read Chapter →History and Development of International Law
Modern international law developed through centuries of diplomatic practice, agreements between States and the growth of international institutions. The creation of organisations such as the United Nations contributed to the development of internatio...
Read Chapter →Sources of International Law
The traditional sources of international law include international conventions, customary international law and general principles of law. Judicial decisions and writings of highly qualified legal scholars are used as subsidiary means for determining...
Read Chapter →International Conventions and Treaties
Treaties are written agreements between States or other recognised international legal actors. A treaty creates legal obligations for those who consent to be bound according to the treaty's terms and applicable international rules....
Read Chapter →Customary International Law
Customary international law develops through general and consistent State practice followed because States believe the practice is legally required. Both widespread practice and acceptance of that practice as law are important elements....
Read Chapter →General Principles of Law
General principles of law are principles recognised across major legal systems. They may assist courts and legal institutions when interpreting and applying international legal rules....
Read Chapter →Subjects of International Law
States remain the primary subjects of international law. International organisations and, in specific areas, individuals may also hold rights and obligations under international legal systems....
Read Chapter →Statehood and Sovereignty
Statehood concerns the legal characteristics of a State, including territory, population and government. Sovereignty describes the authority of a State within its legal sphere while recognising obligations created by international law....
Read Chapter →Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction concerns the authority of a State or court to apply law and decide matters. International jurisdiction may arise through territory, nationality, protective interests, universal jurisdiction principles or consent-based legal instruments....
Read Chapter →State Responsibility
State responsibility concerns the legal consequences of internationally wrongful acts. Where a State breaches an international obligation, legal consequences may include cessation of the conduct, assurances of non-repetition and appropriate remedies....
Read Chapter →International Organisations
International organisations are created through legal instruments and operate according to their founding documents. They contribute to cooperation, law development and dispute resolution....
Read Chapter →International Dispute Settlement
International disputes may be resolved through negotiation, mediation, arbitration, judicial settlement or other peaceful mechanisms. International courts operate according to their establishing instruments and jurisdictional rules....
Read Chapter →Official Resources
International Law and Justice
United Nations overview of international law and justice.
Source: United Nations
International Human Rights Law
Human rights instruments, protections, legal principles and international monitoring systems.
Study Chapters
Introduction to International Human Rights Law
International human rights law concerns the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms recognised as important for human dignity, equality and justice. It developed through international declarations, treaties, customary rules and institutions cre...
Read Chapter →The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and nations. It sets out fundamental rights and freedoms and has influenced the development of later international human rights instrume...
Read Chapter →International Human Rights Treaties
Human rights treaties create specific legal obligations for States that consent to be bound by them. Important instruments include the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural R...
Read Chapter →Core Human Rights Principles
International human rights law is based on principles including universality, equality, non-discrimination, human dignity, accountability and the recognition that rights are interconnected....
Read Chapter →Fair Trial Rights
Fair trial rights protect individuals through principles including an independent and impartial tribunal, presumption of innocence, notice of charges, opportunity to present a defence, access to legal assistance and lawful procedures....
Read Chapter →Freedom From Torture and Cruel Treatment
International law prohibits torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. This protection is recognised as a fundamental human rights principle and is supported by international instruments including the Convention Against Torture....
Read Chapter →Rights During States of Emergency
Some human rights treaties allow limited measures during exceptional public emergencies. Such measures generally require legality, necessity, proportionality and respect for rights that cannot be suspended....
Read Chapter →International Human Rights Institutions
International human rights institutions include United Nations bodies, treaty monitoring committees and regional human rights systems. These institutions monitor implementation, provide guidance and examine compliance with human rights obligations....
Read Chapter →Human Rights Enforcement and Remedies
Human rights protection may involve national courts, international monitoring systems, reporting procedures and other legal mechanisms. Remedies depend on applicable legal frameworks and available jurisdiction....
Read Chapter →International Humanitarian Law
Rules governing armed conflict, the protection of persons affected by war and the regulation of methods and means of warfare.
Study Chapters
Introduction to International Humanitarian Law
International humanitarian law (IHL) is the body of international rules that seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict. It protects persons who are not, or are no longer, participating in hostilities and regulates the conduct of warfare....
Read Chapter →Relationship Between Human Rights Law and IHL
International humanitarian law and international human rights law are separate but related legal frameworks. Human rights law generally applies at all times, while IHL applies specifically during armed conflict and provides rules designed for wartime...
Read Chapter →History and Development of IHL
Modern international humanitarian law developed through humanitarian efforts to reduce suffering during war. The Geneva Conventions and later instruments established internationally recognised protections for victims of armed conflict....
Read Chapter →The Geneva Conventions
The four Geneva Conventions of 1949 establish protections for wounded and sick members of armed forces on land, wounded and shipwrecked members of naval forces, prisoners of war and civilians during armed conflict....
Read Chapter →Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions
The Additional Protocols supplement the Geneva Conventions by developing protections relating to international armed conflicts, non-international armed conflicts and humanitarian protections....
Read Chapter →Fundamental Principles of IHL
Core principles of IHL include distinction between civilians and combatants, proportionality in attacks, precautions to reduce harm, military necessity and the principle of humanity....
Read Chapter →Protection of Civilians
IHL provides protections for civilians and civilian objects during armed conflict. Parties to conflict must distinguish military objectives from civilian persons and property and take measures to minimise civilian harm....
Read Chapter →Treatment of Prisoners and Detainees
Persons detained during armed conflict must be treated humanely. IHL prohibits torture, cruel treatment and degrading treatment and provides minimum guarantees for protected persons....
Read Chapter →Means and Methods of Warfare
IHL regulates the weapons and methods used during armed conflict. Certain weapons and methods may be restricted or prohibited where they cause unnecessary suffering or indiscriminate harm....
Read Chapter →War Crimes and Individual Responsibility
Serious violations of international humanitarian law may constitute war crimes. Individual responsibility may arise through national courts or international criminal justice mechanisms....
Read Chapter →International Humanitarian Institutions
Institutions including the International Committee of the Red Cross contribute to the development, interpretation and practical implementation of humanitarian protections....
Read Chapter →International Criminal Law
Law concerning individual responsibility for international crimes.
Study Chapters
International Crimes and Individual Responsibility
International criminal law addresses individual responsibility for crimes including genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes....
Read Chapter →Treaty Law
The creation, interpretation and operation of international treaties.
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Law of Treaties
Treaty law concerns how international agreements are created, interpreted, applied and terminated....
Read Chapter →International Courts and Tribunals
Institutions that interpret and apply international law.
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International Judicial Institutions
International courts and tribunals operate under specific legal instruments and jurisdictional rules....
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